POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE (2nd part)

 POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second century BC, various rulers controlled the regions that were once under the Mauryas, like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas in the north and central India; and the Satavahanas, Abhiras, Ikshvakus, and Vakatakas in the south and western India.
• This period also saw the emergence of Brahmanical sects like the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas.
• Chief examples of fine sculpture are found at Bharhut and Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh); Mathura (Uttar Pradesh); Bodhgaya (Bihar); Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh); Bhaja and Pavani (Maharashtra); and Khandagiri and Udya Giri (Odisha).

Bharhut

• Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
• The illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
• Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
• Space is utilized to the maximum extent.
• Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection of hands and feet was not possible, but later on, they emerged with deep carvings and a much-naturalized representation of human and animal forms.
• One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the Buddha’s mother) dreaming of an elephant descending towards her womb.
• Jataka tales are also seen.
• A common characteristic of all the male images after the first and second centuries is the knotted headgear.

 Sanchi (Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools)

• Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as important art production centres from the first century AD onwards.
• Buddha gets a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. Previously he was represented via symbols.
• Gandhara art form influenced Indo-Greek elements such as Bactria and Parthia traditions besides the local Gandhara tradition.
  • The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.
  • The Buddha here is more muscular.
  • The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.
  • The hair is curly and the lobes of the ears are elongated.
  • The garments are generally flowing in nature.
  • The sculptures were initially made of stone and later on stucco was also used.
• The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to other parts of northern India.
  • Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.
  • The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on the earlier Yaksha images.
  • Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva and Vaishnava faiths but images of the Buddha are numerous.
  • There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara School.
  • The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
  • The garments are clearly visible and they usually cover the left shoulder. Multiple folds are shown.
  • The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.
  • In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier and their rotundity increase.
  • In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is shown by increasing the distance between the legs and bending of the body. There is more softness in the surface.
  • But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed and the flesh becomes tightened.
  • In the 5th and 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into the mass.
• Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art besides the traditional centre Mathura.
  • The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery covering both shoulders.
  • The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.

Early temples

• Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting built.
• Temples were decorated with the images of gods and also representations of the Purana myths.
• Every temple had a principle image of a god.
• There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:
  • Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path)
  • Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha
  • Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides
• Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran, Uday Giri, Nachna-Kuthara (near Vidisha in MP). These are simple structures with a veranda, a hall and the shrine at the back.

Buddhist Monuments of South India

• The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, etc.
• Amaravati School of Art
  • Developed during the Satavahana period.
  • This is fully indigenous in nature and had profound influence on art in Sri Lanka and south-east Asia since products from here were taken to those places.
  • Had many sculptures and has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures are preserved in Chennai Museum, National Museum at Delhi, Amaravati Site Museum and the British Museum at London.
  • Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha and a vedica (fence) with many sculptures on it. The torana (gateway) has disappeared.
  • Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs.
  • Events from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales are depicted.
  • It was first built in the first century AD and later centuries developed or enhanced.
  • Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen from the later stages (like the stupa at Sanchi).
  • The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are slender and show a lot of movement. The bodies are shown with 3 bents (tribhanga).
  • The structures are more complex than at Sanchi and are more animated.
  • There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.
• The sculptures of Goli and Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are reduced in animation but still very three-dimensional.
• Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Guntapalle. Guntappale: Rock-cut cave site near Ellora.
• Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam); and Sannati (largest in Karnataka).
• Apart from Buddha images, images of Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Padmapani, Amitabha and Maitreya Buddha are also seen.

MAURYAN EMPIRE

 MAURYAN EMPIRE

Introduction:

The Mauryan Empire, under the visionary rule of Ashoka the Great, witnessed a flourishing of artistic and architectural brilliance. Let's embark on a visual exploration of the iconic structures and artistic marvels of this golden era.

Palette:

• Bold hues inspired by the rich tapestry of Indian culture:
• Deep saffron for spirituality
• Royal blue for grandeur
• Earthy tones for heritage
• Verdant greens for nature's embrace

Illustrations:

Mauryan Court Art:

• Palaces: Magnificent structures rising against the horizon, adorned with intricate carvings and majestic domes.
• Pillars: Towering symbols of power and enlightenment, etched with profound inscriptions and timeless wisdom.
• Stupas: Serene sanctuaries, their domes reaching towards the heavens, echoing the enlightenment of Buddha.

Influence and Inspiration:

• Persian Influence: Palatial splendors echoing the opulence of Persepolis, infused with Indian aesthetics and grandeur.
• Symbolism in Sculptures: Detailed carvings depicting the lotus of enlightenment, the noble lion, and the sacred bull.

Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions:

• Ashoka's Pillar Edicts: Scrolls unfurling tales of compassion, ethics, and governance, engraved in stone for eternity.
• Inscriptions: Multilingual proclamations echoing across time, promoting harmony and righteous governance.

Stupas:

• Architectural Marvels: Circular drums rising from the earth, crowned with ornate harmika and chhatra, symbolizing the eternal cycle of life.
• Depiction of Buddha: Symbolic motifs evolving into intricate Jataka tales, adorning the sacred precincts with tales of enlightenment.

Interactive Elements:

• Virtual Tour: Navigate through the grandeur of Mauryan palaces and the serenity of Buddhist stupas with immersive 3D visuals.
• Inscription Decoder: Unravel the ancient languages of Pali, Prakrit, and Greek, deciphering the timeless wisdom inscribed on Ashoka's pillars.

Conclusion:

The legacy of Mauryan Art and Architecture stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of creativity and enlightenment. Through vibrant hues and intricate designs, let's celebrate the timeless heritage of an empire that embraced both material splendor and spiritual enlightenment.

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Art of the Indus Valley Civilization(Art Works)

                                                                        

                       Art of the Indus Valley Civilization

     1   DANCING GIRL

One of the best known artefacts from the Indus Valley is this approximately four-inch-high copper figure of a dancing girl. Found in Mohenjo-Daro, this exquisite casting depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun. Bangles cover her left arm, a bracelet and an amulet or bangle adorn her right arm, and a cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck. Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped in a traditional Indian dance gesture. She has large eyes and flat nose. This figure is full of expression and bodily vigour and conveys a lot of information.

 2  BULL

This bronze figure of a bull from Mohenjo-Daro deserves mention. The massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are eloquently expressed. The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and with a cord around the neck.

  3  MALE TORSO

In this red sandstone figure, there are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the attachment of head and arms. The frontal posture of the torso has been consciously adopted. The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly prominent.

4 PAINTED EARTHEN JAR

Found in Mohenjo-Daro, this jar is made on a potter’s wheel with clay. The shape was manipulated by the pressure of the crafty fingers of the potter. After baking the clay model, it was painted with black colour. High polishing was done as a finishing touch. The motifs are of vegetals and geometric forms. Designs are simple but with a tendency towards abstraction.

5 MOTHER GODDESS

The mother goddess figures are usually crude standing female figures adorned with necklaces hanging over prominent breasts and wearing a loin cloth and a girdle. The fan-shaped head-dress with a cup-like projection on each side is a distinct decorative feature of the mother goddess figures of the Indus Valley. The pellet eyes and beaked nose of the figures are very crude, and the mouth is indicated by a slit.

 6  BULL  SEAL

The rarity of zebu seals is curious because the humped bull is a recurring theme in many of the ritual and decorative arts of the Indus region, appearing on painted pottery and as figurines long before the rise of cities and continuing on into later historical times. The zebu bull may symbolize the leader of the herd, whose strength and virility protects the herd and ensures the procreation of the species or it stands for a sacrificial animal. When carved in stone, the zebu bull probably represents the most powerful clan or top officials of Mohenjo- daro and Harappa.                                

Indus Valley Civilization

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 

 (2500 to 1500 BC)

 THE arts of the Indus Valley Civilization emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE. The forms of art found from various sites of the civilization include sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta figures, etc. The artists of that time surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation of human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature, since the anatomical details included in them were unique, and, in the case of terracotta art, the modelling of animal figures was done in an extremely careful manner.

The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, along the Indus river the cities of Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south—showcase one of earliest examples of civic planning. Other markers were houses, markets, storage facilities, offices, public baths, etc., arranged in a grid-like pattern. There was also a highly developed drainage system. While Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are situated in Pakistan, the important sites excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, etc.

         Stone Statues

The figure of the bearded man, interpreted as a priest, is draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering the left shoulder. This shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns. The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative concentration. The nose is well formed and of medium  size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache and a short beard and whiskers; the ears resemble double shells with a hole in the middle. The hair is parted in the middle, and a plain woven fillet is passed round the head. An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes around the neck suggest a necklace.

Bronze Casting

The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole made in the clay cover. The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object. Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was completely removed. In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit. Bronze casting was popular at all the major centers of the Indus Valley Civilization. The copper dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan are in no way inferior to the human figures of copper and bronze from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Metal casting appears to be a continuous tradition. The late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites like Daimabad in Maharashtra yielded excellent examples of metal-cast sculptures. They mainly consist of human and animal figures. It shows how the tradition of figure sculpture continued down the ages.

 Terracotta 

           

The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan. The most important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess. In terracotta, we also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs slightly apart, and the arms parallel to the sides of the body. The repetition of this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that he was a deity. A terracotta mask of a horned deity has also been found. Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta.

Seals

• The seals were elegant figures of various animals. These animals included unicorn bison, goat, bull, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, and much more. These figures are depicted very carefully on the seals. The figures are usually made with steatite. The figures are sometimes made of chert, copper, terracotta, ivory, and agate.
• The primary purpose behind the production of seals was to use them commercially. These figures were also called the amulets. Every seal during that time was engraved in the form of a pictographic script. This script is yet to be understood and deciphered.
• The famous Pashupati seal is known for its unique features. It depicts the figure of a human. This human is considered a female deity. The female is believed to be seated in a cross-legged position. The image of a tiger and elephant is also depicted on the right side of the deity figure. A buffalo and rhinoceros can also be seen in the figure. Apart from these images, we can also see a pair of antelopes on the seat.
• The tablets of copper were also used as amulets at this time. The amulets contain a human figure along with an inscription on both sides.

    POTTERY

The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of fine wheel-made wares, with very few being hand-made .The Indus valley civilization also had inscriptions of wheels made of wares. A few of them were hand-made also. This type of pottery was also made of red clay. It included a fine or red slip. One example of this is the black painted ware. It had the coating of a red slip. It also had geometric and animal figures on it. The painted Earthen Jar was first found in Mohenjo-Daro.

• Polychrome pottery: This type of polychrome pottery is less found in nature.
• It mainly contains small-sized vases decorated with geometric patterns in yellow, black, and red colours. 
• Incised ware: It is also rarely found, and the incised decoration was bound to the bases of the pans.
• Perforated pottery involves a huge hole at the bottom and small holes around the wall, and it was mainly used for straining beverages. 

    Beads and Ornaments   

                                             

 A well-developed bead industry. Beads and ornaments can be found in the factories of Chanhudaro and Lothal. Necklaces, finger-rings, fillets, and armlets were frequently worn. Women wore anklets and earrings. Material used: Beads were commonly made of amethyst, jasper, carnelian, crystal, steatite, turquoise, quartz,  lapis lazuli, etc. Unique Metals like copper, shell, bronze and gold, faience, and terracotta were also used in the beads. Shapes of beads – Disc-shaped, spherical, barrel-shaped, cylindrical, and segmented.

 Conclusion

The Indus Valley Civilization came up during the second half of the third BCE. Archaeologists have uncovered thousands of seals, most of which are made of steatite, although some are made of agate, chert, or copper. These contained stunning animal models such as a unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, and elephant. The primary reason for creating seals was for business purposes. A considerable amount of pottery discovered from the sites allows us to comprehend the progressive growth of diverse design motifs as used in varied forms and styles. Harappan men and women adorned themselves with a wide range of jewellery made from every imaginable material, including precious metals and jewels, bone, and baked clay.

Prehistoric Era Art- Rock Paintings

 

PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS 

The distant past when there was no paper or language or the written word, and hence no books or written documents, is called prehistory or as we often say, prehistoric times. 

  How people lived in those times was difficult to surmise until scholars began to discover the places where prehistoric people lived. Excavation at these places brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones of ancient human beings and animals, and drawings on cave walls. By piecing together the information deduced from these objects and the cave drawings, scholars have constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what happened and how people lived in prehistoric times. When the basic needs of food, water, clothing and shelter were fulfilled people felt the need to express themselves. Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practiced by human beings to express themselves, using the cave walls as their canvas.

 Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of the world. We do not really know if Lower Paleolithic people ever produced any art objects. But by the Upper Paleolithic times we see a proliferation of artistic activities. Around the world the walls of many caves of this time are full of finely carved and painted pictures of animals which the cave-dwellers hunted. The subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and animal symbols. In India the earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Paleolithic times.

 It is interesting to know that the first discovery of rock paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years before the discovery of Altamira in Spain. Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra and Ghosh were the early archaeologists who discovered a large number of sites in the Indian sub-continent.

Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of the caves situated in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar. Some paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand also. The rock shelters on banks of the River Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometers on the Almora Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings. Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves. The paintings here can be divided into three categories: man, animal and geometric patterns in white, black and red ochre. Humans are represented in stick-like forms. A long-snouted animal, a fox and a multiple legged lizard are the main animal motifs. Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups of dots can also be seen here. One of the interesting scenes depicted here is of hand-linked dancing human figures. There is some superimposition of paintings. The earliest are in black; over these are red ochre paintings and the last group comprises white paintings. From Kashmir two slabs with engravings have been reported. The granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for his paintings. There are several such sites but more famous among them are Kupgallu, Piklihal and Tekkalkota. Three types of paintings have been reported from here—paintings in white, paintings in red ochre over a white background and paintings in red ochre.

Wavy lines, Lakhudiyar, Uttarakhand

These paintings belong to late historical, early historical and Neolithic periods. The subjects depicted are bulls, elephants, sambhars, gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, stylized humans, tridents, but rarely, vegetal motifs.

Cave entrance, Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh

   

 The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist V.S. Wakankar and later on many more were discovered. Wakankar spent several years in surveying these inaccessible hills and jungles to study these paintings.

The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to sacred and royal images. These include hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, and other household scenes.

The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into various groups on the bases of style, technique and superimposition. The drawings and paintings can be categorized into seven historical periods. Period I, Upper Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III, Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four successive periods. But we will confine ourselves here only to the first three phases.

Upper Palaeolithic Period

 The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures, such as bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human figures. A few are wash paintings but mostly they are filled with geometric patterns. The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of hunters.

 Mesolithic Period

The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings. During this period the themes are multiple but the paintings are smaller in  size. Hunting scenes predominate. The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows. In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments. Sometimes, men have been adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes painted with masks also. Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel and at times birds are also depicted. The Mesolithic artists loved to paint animals. In some pictures, animals are chasing men. In others they are being chased and hunted by men. Some of the animal paintings, especially in the hunting scenes, show a fear of animals, but many others show a feeling of tenderness and love for them. There are also a few engravings representing mainly animals.

 The artists of Bhimbetka used many colors, including various shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black. But white and red were their favorite colors. The paints were made by grinding various rocks and minerals. They got red from haematite (known as geru in India). The green came from a green variety of a stone called chalcedony. White might have been made out of limestone. The rock of mineral was first ground into a powder. This may then have been mixed with water and also with some thick or sticky substance such as animal fat or gum or resin from trees. Brushes were made of plant fibre. What is amazing is that these colours have survived thousands of years of adverse weather conditions. It is believed that the colours have remained intact because of the chemical reaction of the oxide present on the surface of the rocks.

This practice is common among primitive people of today also. They engrave or paint on rocks as part of the rituals they perform at birth, at death, at coming of age and at the time of marriage. They dance, masked, during hunting rites to help them kill animals difficult to find or kill.

  HUNTING SCENE

 Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings. This is one such scene where a group of people are shown hunting a bison. Some injured men are depicted lying scattered on the ground. These paintings show mastery in the skill of drawing these forms.

                                 

DANCING SCENE

In this picture hand-linked figures in dancing mode are shown. In fact, this is a recurrent theme. It also recalls the dancing scene from the Lakhudiyar rock painting found in Uttarakhand.

CONCLUSION

 These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—the way they thought. Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilization, through the numerous rock weapons, tools, ceramics and bones. More than anything else, the rock paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human beings of this period left behind.