TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE (PART:-1)

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE  AND SCULPTURE

Introduction

MOST of the art and architectural remains that survive from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and the things in them were mostly made from materials like wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces us to many types of temples from India. Although we have focused mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind that religious shrines were also made for many local cults in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also vanished.

Early Temples

•  While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods also started getting constructed.
• Often temples were decorated with the images of gods.
•  Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part of narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. 
• Each temple had a principal image of a god.
•  The shrines of the temples were of three kinds—(i) sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (with pradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides).
•  Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar  Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
• These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

The Form Of The Hindu Temple

 The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

1. Sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.
2. The entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa.
3. Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India.
4. the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.

Types Of Indian Temple Architecture/ Styles

Basically there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:

1. Nagara Style :- Nagara in the north
2. Dravida Style :- Dravida in the south
3. Vesara Style :- The Vesar style of temples as an independent style created through the selective mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some scholars.

 Sculpture, Iconography and Ornamentation

• The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them.
•  Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography.
•  The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a fundamental part of its conception.
• The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned:  for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard them.
• The deities of directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple.
• Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.

(1) The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

• The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as nagara.
• In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
• unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several.
• The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

Subdivisions of Nagara Style

 1 Rekha-prasada 

• There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.
• The most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
• In later periods, latina type became more complex with several towers clustered together.
• The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.

2 Phamsana

• The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the Phamsana.
•  Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones.
• Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers.
• In many North Indian temples you will notice that the Phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building.
• Later on, the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tall tower, the temple began to support many smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which was always above the garbhagriha.

3 Valabhi

• The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what is generally called the valabhi type.
• These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
•  The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.
• The valabhi type of building was one of them. For instance, if you study the ground-plan of many of the Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves, you will notice that they are shaped as long halls which end in a curved back. From the inside, the roof of this portion also looks like a wagon-vaulted roof.

Nagara Style in Various Regions:-

1 Central India

• Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
• Made of sandstone.
• Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP. They are small shrines with four pillars to support a small mandapa. The mandapas are basically small porch-like structures before the garbhagriha which are also rather small. Examples: temple at Udaigiri – part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a Buddhist site).
• This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.

Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

• Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
• Patrons are unknown.
• From the architecture and imagery, it is known that the temple was built in early 6th century CE.
• Panchayatana Style of architecture.
  • Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that are smaller and at the 4 corners.
  • Hence, there are a total of five shrines and hence the name, Panchayatana.
• This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
• It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
• Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right side respectively.
• Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on the south; Nara-Narayan on the east; and Gajendramoksha on the west.
• Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them, the temple was mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.

Khajuraho Temples (MP)

• Built in the 10th century CE.
• It is a UNESCO heritage site.
• Patronised by Chandela Kings.
• All temples made of sandstone.
• From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the development of the Nagara architectural style is visible here.
• These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though some Jain temples are also present.
• There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship indicating the rise and spread of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
• Important temples in Khajuraho:  Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and Lakshmana temple.  
• Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.
• Dedicated to Vishnu.
• Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
• Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.
• Has small temples in four corners.
• Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting balconies and verandas.

2 West India

• Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.
• Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th century temples.
• Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a 15th century temple at Ranakpur.
• Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are found here.
• Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat
  
•  Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
• Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known as the ‘Surya Kund’ in the front. This is a noticeable feature from earlier times – proximity of a sacred water body. By the early 11th century, this was a common feature of many temples.
• The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its kind in the country. 108 miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
• A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or assembly hall that is open on all sides.
• Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
• The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and every year at the time of equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.

 3 East India

• Eastern Indian temples include those found in the North East, Bengal and Odisha. 
• The history of architecture in the North-East and Bengal is hard to study because a number of ancient buildings in those regions  were renovated, and what survives now are later brick or concrete temples at those sites.
• A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal which shows the development of important regional schools in those regions.

 

Assam

• There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the 6th century CE from DaParvatia near Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia.
• The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.
• By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed in the region around Guwahati. This style evolved from the mixing of the style brought to the area by the Tais of Upper Burma with the Pala style of Bengal. Example: Kamakhya Temple – a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya built in 17th century.

Bengal

• Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
  • Style between the 9th and 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas were patrons of Buddhist monastic styles. The temples in this region showcased the local Vanga style.
  • Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th century to the middle of the 13th centuries – Sena style.
  • Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District – 9th century; tall curving Shikhara crowned by a large amalaka – early Pala style.
  • 
  • Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to 12th century but were submerged due to dam construction. These temples showed all the Nagara sub-styles prevalent in the north.
    • Some temples survive.
    • Made of black to grey basalt.
    • Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
    • They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
  • Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples. Most noticeable of these influences was the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
    • This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as the Bangla Roof.
  • From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples were built which had elements from the earlier Pala style, from the local bamboo hut styles, and arches and domes from Islamic architecture.
  • Eg. Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)
  • 

Odisha

• Three orders of architectural features:
  • Rekhapida (Rekha Deula): Tall straight building (looking like a shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
  • Pidhadeul: It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers are present and also where dancing takes place.
  • Khakra (Khakra Deula): Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof. Temples of Shakti are usually in this type.
• Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District including Bhubaneswar (ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark).
• Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called Kalinga Style.
• Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical and suddenly curves sharply inwards at the top.
• In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in Odisha.
• The exterior of the temples is richly carved while the interiors are plain.
• Temples generally have boundary walls.
• Konark Sun Temple
• Sun temple built around 1240.
• Its shikhara which was said to be 70m high fell in the 19th century.
• The jagamohana (mandapa) has survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture although it is not accessible any more.
• The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings. There are 12 pairs of gigantic wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole temple resembles a processional chariot.
• On the southern wall, there is a huge sculpture of Surya or sun god made of greenstone. It is believed that there were 3 more such images in different directions made out of different stones. The fourth wall had the doorway from which the sun rays would enter the garbhagriha.

The hills

• Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir
• Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region) with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal.
• We can see both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in the hills.
• Its local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
• Many temples showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the Latina type, and the mandapa in wooden architecture.
• Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.
• Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of architecture.
• Temple at Pandrethan –
  • 8th and 9th centuries; the temple built on a plinth in the middle of a water tank.
  • Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Wooden building. A peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the snowy conditions)
  • Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway.
• Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh) –
  • Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
  • Styles: Post-Gupta and Kashmiri metal sculpture traditions. Images’ yellow colour is possibly an alloy of zinc and copper which were popular in Kashmir.
  • Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman in the 7th century.
• Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region – temples at Jageshwar (near Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in Uttarakhand.